Same Sex Marriage Should Be Legalized - 1309 Words

Katerina Do Dr. Clay ENGL 1302-013 29 September 2015 Issue Proposal I would introduce this issue to an audience explaining that same-sex marriage, also called gay marriage, is a marriage or a civil union between couples of the same sex. I would continue to explain it as a controversial and moral issue discussed worldwide today, due to many gay couples coming out and openly expressing their need for equal rights. I would add onto and explain how supporters of equal rights and those who oppose the topic have both participated in highly publicized legal and social battles for their beliefs. I know that many are against the legalization of gay marriage, and argue that their religious beliefs give them the right to refuse to serve same-sex†¦show more content†¦I acquired my knowledge through my own personal research on the topic, through web and text resources, as well as virtual reference libraries available to me. I’ve found mountains of books and articles on the legal side of the subject already in addition to the civil viewpoint of the issue. I’ve done this research throughout my years, due to many of my friends being directly affected by the subject, my belief is that it is a new era, and a different time, with evolving traditions. This issue is compelling and interesting to me because I know denying certain people the option and right to marry one another is discriminatory, and creates a second class of citizens within our country. The US Constitution commits to liberty and equality for every single citizen no matter gender, sexuality, creed or race. I plan to do more research on the legal aspect and the benefits of it that I do not know much about, and to interview supporters as well as those against it for first-hand comments and viewpoints for my essay. I plan to learn the extensive history on the topic, and how viewpoints have changed throughout generations, and it’s emergence in today’s culture. My main questions would be whether or not the benefits would outweigh the drawbacks of legalization. This would be that in the modern way of thinking, because marriage

Living in a Smoke Free Environment Free Essays

â€Å"More than 400,000 deaths in the United States each year are from smoking-related illnesses. † This is a quote from the National Institutes of Health regarding smoking. Smoking is a practice that a person does where a substance is burned and the smoke is either tasted or inhaled. We will write a custom essay sample on Living in a Smoke Free Environment or any similar topic only for you Order Now Most of the time people use it as a recreational drug because it releases nicotine and is absorbed through the lungs. It has been said that smoking related diseases kills one half of all long term smokers but these diseases may also appear in non-smokers.For those of us who are non-smokers, it is disturbing to find out that even though you do not smoke, you can still get diseases that are caused from smoking; this is thanks to second hand smoke. As a non-smoker, when one breathes in second hand smoke they take in nicotine and other toxic chemicals just like a smoker does. The more secondhand smoke that a person is exposed to the level of harmful chemicals in their body is also very high. Second hand smoke is a very big problem recently.Stores, restaurants, and other public places are beginning to ban smoking inside and ask that if someone wants to smoke they must step outside so many feet from the building. There are four major places where smoking is a very big problem: at work, in public place, at home, and in the car. When adults are at work, that is where a lot of their second hand smoke exposure comes from. Second hand smoke in the workplace has been linked to an increased risk for heart disease and lung cancer among non-smokers. By placing restrictions on smoking at work, that protects non-smokers from second hand smoke and also helps encourage those who do smoke to quit. I believe that there should be a ban put in the workplace when it comes to smoking. I know that when I go to work I do not want to show up to the smell of smoke, and leave to go home smelling like smoke. If I was to walk into work where people were smoking I would feel as if I could not breathe or work because of the smell. The next place where there is a lot of concern for second hand smoke is in public places.This is because there are many people who go out and people who take their children with them. Some businesses are afraid that if they become smoke-free they will lose business. There has not been any proof that this is true. I do not believe that if a business becomes smoke-free that they will lose customers, unless their whole store was a smoking zone to begin with. If a store allows smoking throughout their store and suddenly decides to not allow smoking, then yes there is a possibility of losing customers. Other than that, I do not see where a business would lose its customers.One place where it is very import to keep smoke free would be your home. Any family member, no matter what their age, could develop health problems related to second hand smoke. The family member that would be affected by second hand smoke would be the children. Asthma, lung infections, and ear infections are some of the most common problems in children who are around smoker. Your home is where you spend most of your time. If you keep your home smoke-free then you are not only protecting yourself, but you are also protecting your family, guests, and even your pets.When I am able to own my own house, I know that I want it to be a smoke free place. I know how much I dislike the smell of smoke, I would not like for my guest to be disgusted just by coming to my house. My house is a place where I like to relax and not have worries about anything, but if I began to smoke, the house would smell bad causing everything in my home to smell bad. The final place where it should be a smoke free zone is your car. Many people spend a lot of time in their cars going from place to place.Since a car is closed in for the most part smoke can build up very quickly causing the car to be a hazardous place, especially for children. When I first got my car I decided that I would treat it like it was my baby. I would not want anything to happen to it, and I would not to harm it in any way. Smoking definitely harms your car; the smell sinks into your seat which in turn is there for long periods of time even if you try to get the smell out. I would not want someone whom I might have just met to get into my car and just be able to smell smoke.I don’t believe if would be a very enjoyable ride the whole time. Many places now have begun to realize that smoking and second hand smoke is not good for anyone. Keeping people healthy should be a main priority for everyone. I believe that no matter where you are or who you work for, if you are witnessing second hand smoke and do not like it, there is something you can do about it. I would speak up to protect people and especially children from tobacco-caused diseases and addictions. How to cite Living in a Smoke Free Environment, Papers

Nomads and their effects on China and Egypt free essay sample

Nomads have been known to roam the eastern hemisphere since the beginning of time. The nomadic people and their incursions had affected China and Egypt both, however there impact varied greatly from region to region. China and Egypt both share that the nomads brought chariots to either region and cultural diffusion, but they differ in the fact that in Egypt most people were forced to become nomadic and driven out of their homes, while China did not. The nomads of China and Egypt mainly brought cultural diffusion to each region. From each place the nomads traveled from, apiece of that culture got incorporated into China and Egypt, bringing new ideas, and improving society. Chariots were also a similarity that the nomads brought to both China and Egypt. Mainly nobles, and the military used the chariot as a way of transportation. The chariot was also a way of showing social hierarchy, and also improved warfare tactics. We will write a custom essay sample on Nomads and their effects on China and Egypt or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In warfare tactics both regions greatly adopted the use of archery (cross bow) because of the chariot. The chariot was a mobile archery platform, and also great for protection since there wasn’t much armory in either region at the time. Not only did the chariot improve warfare tactics, it brought new hunting games and races to the regions, as more peaceful and pleasurable events. These similarities greatly impacted and improved the great societies of China and Egypt. The effects of the nomads and their incursions on China and Egypt differed in many ways. The Chinese living near the Yellow River had to become nomadic due to agricultural reasons and because of incursions with the nomads. Then, while in Egypt the nomadic life style was forced upon them. If they did not believe in the nomadic ways or â€Å"convert† they would be kicked out of their homes as a threat or way of showing nomadic power. Due to the Chinese becoming nomadic because of agricultural reasons and incursions, many issues formed between the non-nomadic Chinese people and the nomadic Chinese people. For 2,000 years the nomads harassed, invaded, and even conquered the settled agricultural civilizations of the Chinese  empire causing many unnecessary incursions. Counter to that the nomad people helped flourish the Egyptian life style along the Nile, raising its population tremendously. They started to make large farms, increasing irrigation over time, and then because of the improvement of irrigation they no longer needed farms. When there weren’t as many farms because of irrigation, people started to gear towards specialized jobs, truly forming the Egyptian civilization by improving w riting. Lastly one other difference of the effect of nomadic people and their incursions on both Egypt and China was, in China the nomadic people concentrated on herding their animals, and in Egypt not so much. They truly focused more on herding in china rather than Egypt, because of the geographical region, where irrigation was not promising. I think the differences between the way the nomads affected China and Egypt were do to the way the different empires were run. The governments were ran differently, there for making it tough for the similar attributes the nomads brought hard to affect them both in the same way. Mainly due to clime, government, and history there is no way the nomads could impact China and Egypt in the same way. In the end whether the effect of the nomads and their incursions were similar in both China and Egypt or different, those attributes that were brought to the societies by the nomads helped form those two top regions today. Student name: ___________________ AP Generic Rubric Comparison Essay Basic core Competence Requirements Points 1. Has acceptable thesis. Addresses comparison of the issues or themes specified. 2. Addresses all parts of the question, though not necessarily evenly or thoroughly. (Addresses most parts of the question: for example, deals with differences but not similarities) 3. Substantiates thesis with at least five pieces of appropriate historical evidence. (Partly substantiates thesis with appropriate historical evidence) 4. Makes at least two relevant, direct comparisons between / among societies (at least one similarity and one difference) 5. Analyzes at least one reason for a similarity or difference identified in a direct comparison

Landscape Architecture As A Career Essays - Architecture

Landscape Architecture as a Career A landscape architect is an individual who arranges and modifies the effects of natural scenery over a tract of land so as to produce the best aesthetic effect for the land^?s use. Landscape architecture is the design profession which applies artistic, cultural, and scientific knowledge to the design, planning, and development of the land. Landscape architects accept certain responsibilities related to the health and welfare of the public and are concerned with resource conservation of the land. The practice of landscape architecture requires an appreciation and understanding of natural and social processes, a creative imagination, and a commitment to preserve or improve the environment for human use and enjoyment. Landscape architects plan the most harmonious relationships between the land and the objects on it by proper combination of open space and planting, and by wise use of land formation (Concise 151). They may work on parks, gardens, housing projects, school campuses, golf courses, or airports. They begin a project by reviewing the needs and desires of the client. They study the site, mapping such features as the slope of the land, existing structures and the type of soil. They check local building codes and availability of utilities, make drawings which outline the work in detail, and draw up lists of materials to be used. They then invite bids from construction companies and landscape nursery companies. With the awarding of the contracts, their work may be finished, or they may stay on to supervise the work as their client's representative (151). A major branch of landscape architecture, golf course architecture, integrates the skills of a landscape architect on a larger scale. The aim a golf course architect is to create a truly great golf course by utilizing to the fullest extent possible the potential of a promising piece of land (Golfplan 1). This potential is expressed in the site's location, slope, vegetation, water features, soil types, climate and orientation. The role a golf course architect is the realization of this potential under the constraints of design criteria that separate the truly great golf course from the ordinary (1). Landscape architecture, the science and art of modifying land areas by organizing natural, cultivated, or constructed elements according to an aesthetic plan (Encarta 1). The elements include topographical features such as hills, valleys, rivers, and ponds; and growing things such as trees, shrubbery, grass, and flowers; and constructions such as buildings, terraces, roads, bridges, fountains, and statuary. No unalterable rules exist in landscape architecture because each plot of ground offers unique problems caused by variation in contour, climate, and surrounding areas (1). As early as the third millennium BC, the Egyptians planted gardens within the walled enclosures surrounding their homes (Encarta 2). In Mesopotamia, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the World. In ancient Greece, sacred groves were preserved as the habitats of divinities. Greek houses included a walled court or garden usually surrounded by a colonnade. In 5th-Century BC, Athens public gardens and colonnaded walks attached to the Academy (school) and the Lyceum (gymnasium) were much frequented by philosophers and their disciples (2). Domestic architecture in the first half of the 20th Century attempted to achieve a closer integration of the house with it^?s surroundings, as seen in the works of Sven Markelius in Sweden, Alvar Aalto in Finland, and Frank Lloyd Wright in the United States (Encarta 5). The worldwide economic depression between the two world wars forced a shift from domestic settings to large-scale public works, in which landscape architects and planners worked together on entire communities, regional areas, and vast state and national projects. The proliferation of shopping malls, new suburbs, cultural centers, revitalized urban cores, and new educational facilities, has given landscape architects in the later decades of this century unparalleled opportunities to refine their art and to create new forms. They have become, in conjunction with their colleagues in architecture, engineering, planning, and public office, the shapers of both the future and the present physical environment (Encarta 5). The origin of today^?s profession of landscape architecture can be traced to the early treatments of outdoor space by successive ancient cultures, from Persia and Egypt through Greece and

Dial-up Compared to High Speed Access essays

Dial-up Compared to High Speed Access essays The essay topic I have chosen to write on, is comparing a dial-up connection to a high speed connection to the internet. Dial-up and high speed access can be both used to connect to the internet, they both perform the same function. Which is to connect you to the internet. The way the connection are offered are different, one is thru the phone company. This method is called dial-up and the other is thru the cable company, being called high speed access nicked named a (cable connection). A dial-up connection has its faults and its advantages, just as high speed has its faults and advantages. With dial-up you have to connect thru the use of your on phone line, this is a disadvantage. Reason being is that you can not receive or make calls while connected to the internet. With a high speed connection you have free use of the phone to receive, and make calls. When comparing the similarities of price plans, dial-up connection has the advantage over the high speed connection to the internet. With the price of the dial-up connection averaging around twenty one dollars. While the average price plan for the high speed access was forty eight dollars a month. With a dial-up connection you have to have a local provider, for the internet if you do not have a local provider you will have to seek out a internet provider. With the average cost of that being around twenty three dollars, with that comes a disadvantage. Because you can end-up paying long distance charges, having to call out side of your calling area to connect with your internet provider. With the high speed access being provided thru a separate connection, thru the use of a cable line other than the one that connects to your television. Your on line with no long distance charges and with your connection to the internet, you also get a internet provider instead of having to find one. Now that you have a connection to the internet thru cabl ...

Car Rental Business Plan

A car rental business plan is a familiar business model for most bankers and investors. Ever since car sharing programs like Flex Car rose to prominence in the ? 00s, business people have re-imagined what the car rental business model can be. Which is not to say that the conventional model is dead—far from it. Auto rental behemoths like Avis, Hertz, and Enterprise have managed to keep revenues up despite the flagging economy, and one look at any airport parking lot shows that this line of business is not likely to fade out anytime soon. But when preparing a car rental business plan, providing this context is just part of your job. You need to explain in detail what the rental types are, the sort of cars you will stock, and the rates you envision charging. Then go into: †¢ The market for your rental agency—who will be your average customer? †¢ The marketing strategies you will use †¢ How the company will be staffed †¢ The amount of funding you need How you will allocate your capital and what amount of sales will be reinvested into operations Your business plan for a car rental agency should have a comprehensive financial pro forma that shows not only how you will spend the money you get up-front, but the projected revenues year over year and the ongoing expenses. Common tables include the sales forecast, personnel plan, profit and loss table, break-even analysis, cash flow, balance sheet, and a sensitivity analysis. Investors also want to see ROI calculations and the first year in a monthly detail. Beyond the model, your business plan needs a management team section, an implementation plan, and a tidy market analysis. Sounds like more than you want to handle? Turn the keys over to the experts at MasterPlans. Our team of exceptional writers, editors, modelers, and researchers can get your plan together in as little as 5-7 business days—877-453-2011.

Identify and discuss the relative importance of the major influences Essay

Identify and discuss the relative importance of the major influences on a tourist's purchasing decision - Essay Example Again, the paper on Japanese tourism demand for U.K outlines the visiting capability of both adult and children. Several factors affect the tourism of Japanese tourism to the U.K and further, it is pertinent to note that young children do frequent the U.K. the following is the summary of the book demand in tourism for the U.K. The book impact of demand in tourism for Japanese in the U.K argues that experts have concentrated on the study of tourism behaviors among Japanese forgetting the relationship of travel and motivational culture to Japan. Further, the difference between older and the younger is discussed. Therefore the article on Japanese tourism to the UK does not only analyze but also reveals the push and constraints as well as the cultural demand of Japanese’s choice on holiday outbound. Due to economic growth and increased expenditure in the Japanese nation, it is pertinent to note that the market on international tourism has gradually grown. Despite of the recent rec ession in economy, the outbound tours for Japanese has not been affected negatively; this is evident with the wide popularized overseas travel. It follows that the UK language, culture and novelty are the core values that act as pull factors to its tourism industry. Japan government has actively participated in the overseas visit since 1964, the Tokyo Olympic year. The article insinuates that the years after Olympic Games the government had to intervene in order to increase the Japanese overseas travelers to almost 10 million in the year 1991. According to the Japanese governmental report, it is acceptable that Japan did face economical recession although it did not hinder the Japanese from traveling outbound. The government concluded the above after analysis of the number of people who choose to enjoy leisure abroad, which was increasing despite of the recession in Japans’ economy. After several researches by experts, it is evident that both groups the older and younger pref er to take a yearly holiday. The frequency of travel varies for instance the younger tent to travel twice a year contrary to older age that travels less. Amusingly, the overseas travel is regarded as more luxurious and that is why, young Japanese are very much attracted to the UK touring. The book evaluates three factors that is the pull, push and constraints. It follows that the above brings out the understanding of the Japanese travel propensities to the UK. Constraints are factors that hinder or rather oppose the overseas travel by the Japanese. Thus, the book illustrates several categories of constraints as below. First, it is wise to analyze the constraint part. According to the research, it is evident that Japanese believe time is one of the constraints for the abroad travel on holiday. Even though it contradicts the study by JTB, who concluded that only 14 percent of the japans feel that time is a hindrance. This clash can be because of cultural differences. Since the japans are workaholics, they tent to feel it unfair to take off when others are working. In addition, the above further bears its evidence from the scholar by the name Bayton who made assumptions on the need of classification. It is argued that in the struggle to satisfy the ego-defensive and affection needs the Japanese do avoid holidays on regular basis. Another constraint to a

Effect of laptop or desktop access on student electronic educational Essay

Effect of laptop or desktop access on student electronic educational interaction - Essay Example Several researches have been conducted to determine the effect of use of computers on teachers’ student interaction and student interaction. In one such a survey where the teachers were interviewed, it was observed that the use of computer has improved interaction and learning in general. Moreover, with the use of computers and internet, the students and the teacher can interact beyond the classroom setting (Balaji &Diganta 2010). This creates more time for learning unlike previously where interaction between the student and teachers was limited to the classroom timetable (Mouza 2012). This enables them to learn at their own pace and improves the level at which they grasp concepts. It is also easy for the teacher to identify individual weaknesses that when teaching a whole group (Shyu & Huang 2011). This makes it possible to attend to the individual students need making learning more meaningful. In comparing the use of computer with previous instances when there was no use of computers, the teachers reported to have become fully engaged in learning. Because of the increase accessibility to information, they teach each other as each contribute to the knowledge they have gained on any particular topic (McLaren 2011). They also reports that the use of internet creates a lot of excitement and they use the different forums available to discuss academic matters unlike previously when they used to work individually. Moreover, since the students mostly interact through written language, it has become easier to exchange coherent information. This is because unlike giving oral presentation, writing involves processing information in the head giving more refined assertions. The effect of access of laptop on student interaction is the same for both sexes. Both boys and girls have reported that they are fascinated by studying using the internet. . However, accessibility alone is

Google Brand Strategy Essay Example for Free

Google Brand Strategy Essay This paper will give you an inside look as to how Google Inc. has evolved into a multi-billion dollar empire since it was first developed in 1996 by two Stanford University graduates working out of a garage. The paper will also compare Google to its strongest competitors in the search engine, web advertising and mobile phone industries. The paper will also reveal what the key elements to success are in those industries. The paper will also detail the resources and key competencies that Google has to make them the leading internet search engine with over 60 percent of market shares. The paper will also discuss the business model and strategies used by Google to help them become one of the fastest growing companies in history. The paper will also touch briefly on some of the threats and weaknesses they face in the marketplace. The paper will also include a recommendation to Google’s top management to help them sustain its competitive edge and financial success in the industry. Background History and Company Growth In 1996, Stanford students Larry Page and Sergey Brin teamed up to develop a new search engine they named BackRub. They chose this name because of the engines ability to rate websites in relevancy based on metatags and keywords. Backrub was quickly gaining popularity and in 1998 Yahoo’s cofounder, David Filo talked Brin and Page into leaving school to put their focus making Backrub a major part of Yahoo. Backrub was later named Google, which was taken from the word googol. Googol is mathematical term for a number represented by the numeral 1 followed by 100 zeros. The founder of Sun Microsystems was the first person to invest in Google with $100,000 in August of 1998 which raised $1 million by the end of September. Google was named â€Å"Top 100 Web Sites and Search Engines for 1998† by PC Magazine and was recorded successes at record pace. Google saw potential for profits in other segments of the market and made innovative ideas to gain market share. In 2000, their innovations included wireless search technologies, search capabilities in ten languages, and Google Toolbar browser. Google expanded its product line again in 2004 with the launch of Google News, Google Product search, Google Scholar and Google Local. Google’s index of web pages also grew to more than 8 billion and increased its country domain to more than 15. Google then entered the mobile phone market in 2004 when they created a feature allowing users to text a search request and Google would provide results to the search. Google Earth was created in 2005, which was later enhanced in 2010 when it included an Earth View mode allowing users to view 3D images of various locations at ground level. Between 2005 and 2010, Google also added Book Search, Music Search and Video Search. Google created features for its website to include Gmail software, web-based calendar, web-based documents, spreadsheet applications and language translations to accommodate 51 languages. Discuss competition in the search industry. Which of the five competitive forces seems strongest? Weakest? What is your assessment of overall industry attractiveness? Google has been able to sustain its competitive advantage because of the strong relationships they have built with Internet users, advertisers and websites. In 2010, Google was the most visited website with more than 147 million internet users visiting their site on a monthly basis to search for information. Google’s management believes its strongest rivals are Microsoft and Yahoo, although market share rankings from June 2006, June 2009 and May 2010 showed Google has more than twice their competitors combined. Yahoo was first founded in 1994 and in 2010 held the top third position for most visited search engine site. Almost any information available on the web can be viewed through Yahoo’s portal. Yahoo has many of the same features as Google such as, personal calendar, email, news, weather, television listing and online photo albums. Yahoo has also partnered with mobile phones allows users to search from their mobile devices just as Google has done and the searches performed through Yahoo accounted for 35 percent of the market in 2010. Yahoo’s many features and services have generated revenues from many sources. Yahoo’s relationship with Google goes back to 2000 and has at times been cooperative and other times adversarial. In fact, Yahoo was one of Google’s first customers, but in 2002 they parted ways when Yahoo purchased other companies to develop search engines and since then they have been considered rival companies. Another of Google’s top competitors is Microsoft whose revenues in 2009 were approximately $58.4 billion, with $14.6 billion net income. They were able to make these impressive profits through sales of computer software, consulting services, video games hardware and online services. Microsoft’s computer software Windows 7 and Microsoft office raked in half the company’s revenues in 2009 and most of its operating profits. Their online sales of $3.1 billion showed a loss of $2.3 billion during 2009. The online services generated income came from banner ads on the company’s MSN web site and other affiliated sites, as well as search-based ads displayed with Bing results. Microsoft entered the search engine industry during 2004 in an effort to compete with Google. This happened because Microsoft noticed job postings for Google were nearly identical to Microsoft specifications. Microsoft believed Google was attempting to design software applications that compared to Microsoft office such as Word, Excel and PowerPoint. Google is well aware of the competitive pressures created by its rival and they fully understand what it takes to hold the competitive edge. They created a strategy that would allow themselves to hold their own against its rivals. In their mind, if the competition could do it, so could they. Competition stems from all sorts of directions for Google. They must compete against their rivals like Yahoo and Microsoft in the search engine industry, new entrants to this industry, the product innovations of their rivals, as well as the bargaining powers their rivals may have that they do not. One of the biggest forces of competition is website traffic. If Google can get more internet users to visit their site over MSN or Yahoo, they will have more bargaining power with advertising sales. Google must also obtain qualified employees with the capabilities to compete with the new and innovative products that Microsoft continues to create. Because the search engine sites are so alike, this causes the rivalry between competitors to increase because the products are less differentiated. What are the key factors that define success in the industry? What are the key competencies, and resources of successful search engine companies? Success in the search industry can be defined by looking at several different factors. One of the most obvious signs of success is revenue growth. Googles revenues from its websites have grown from $792,063 in 2003 to $15,722,486 in 2009 as stated on its 10-k reports. Revenues from licensing have grown from $45,271 in 2003 to $761,759 in 2009. However the value of their stock reached the high point in 2008 at just over $700 per share and has dropped to below $300 in 2008, gained a little in 2009 and dropped again in 2010 to around $450. Some analysts believe Google’s recent decline in revenue and earnings stemmed from their decisions to increase stock prices in order to achieve revenue and growth earnings that pushed the boundaries of their corporate philosophy of making money without doing evil. In order to be successful, Google must continue to develop innovative products at features to better meet the needs of its customers. They need to offer these products at lower prices than their competitors as well. Have Google’s business model and strategy proven to be successful? Should investors be impressed with the company’s financial performance? How does the company’s financial performance compare to that of Microsoft and Yahoo? Google’s innovative products and business acquisitions have all played a part into their strategy directed at increasing the company’s market share in internet advertising. The addition of these products has increased traffic to Google’s website, and therefore, has given them more opportunities to advertise to Internet users. The strategy to dominate the internet advertising market was designed to be worldwide. China was a market that they were particularly interested in taking over since they have more than 300 million users. Unfortunately for Google, China was not as interested in this and they were faced with challenges from their local search provider, Baidu and the Chinese government. As of 2009, only 31 percent of China’s internet users searched using Google and 64 percent used Baidu. Googles business strategy included creating new products and features for the mobile phone industry. In 2010, 234 million people owned mobile phones, with 30 percent having internet access from their devices. Google first introduced its Android operating system in 2008 free of charge to any phone manufacturer marketing mobile phones with internet capability. The applications included the operating system had Wi-Fi capability, email, web-based calendar, Google Earth maps, and GPS. T-Mobile was the first to use Googles Android operating system with the launch of G1 in September 2008. The G1 had many of the same features as Apples iPhone, but much less expensive. The Android operating system was extremely successful with its market share, increasing from zero in 2008 to 13 percent in May of 2010. Another area of Googles business strategy focused on computer software programs used by businesses. Senior management believed the programs would move from local hard drives to the Internet. These is referred to as cloud computing. The market was believed to grow to as much as $95 million by 2013. The move would offer many benefits to corporate users such as lower software acquisition costs, lower computer support costs, and easier collaboration amongst employees in different locations. Google first launched its beta version of free word processing and spreadsheet in 2006 and later relaunched in 2008 to compete with Microsofts Office products. In 2008, Google launched its Chrome Browser and Chrome operating system, specifically to accommodate cloud commuting applications. The Chrome browser was created with a multiprocessor design that allowed users to operate spreadsheets, word processing, video editing and other applications simultaneously. Each tab opened a new window so if one crashed the other applications running would not be affected. Also in 2009, Google made agreements with Acer, Hewlett-Packard and Lenovo to start production of netbooks that used Chrome OS and Chrome browser to access cloud-based Google apps software. Googles business strategy also included expanding into the television market. In 2010, Google teamed up with Intel, Sony, Logitech, Best Buy, DISH Network, and Adobe to develop Google TV. Google TV was built on the Android platform, running the Chrome browser to search live networks and cable programming that streamed videos from providers such as Netflix, Amazon on demand videos, and YouTube. Google TV users would be able to use their televisions to browse the web and run cloud based applications. Googles business strategy also focused on the addition of targeted advertising placed alongside search results on its website. Google Adwords increased annual revenues from $220,000 in 1999 to more than $86 million in 2001. These ads were prices using an auction system, where uses bid on keywords that described their product or service. What are the company’s key resources and competitive capabilities? What competitive liabilities and resource weaknesses does it have? What opportunities exist? What threats to its continued success are present? In order for Google to have continued success in the search engine industry, they need to have resources and capabilities to create competitive advantage over its rivals. Many of theses resources needed for success are intangibles. They included human assets and intellectual capital. This means having employees with experience, education, creativity and innovation to develop new products and features to compete with its rivals. Another important resource is their company image. Googles 10 principles of Corporate philosophy includes You can make money without doing evil. Their image is different from many other businesses. Google believes in conducting business in unconventional ways. They believe their work should be challenging, but fun. The company puts emphasis on team achievement and individual accomplishments that contribute to the companys overall success. They work in a place where there is great communication and camaraderie in order to have the tools necessary to produced Google users with the information they are seeking. Google also believes being great will not make them successful. They must anticipate the future needs of its user and develop innovate product and services in order to be successful in the search engine industry. Building relationships or alliances with suppliers is another key component of success. These relationships can help to reduce costs and enhance product quality and performance. A perfect example of this relationship is Google offering its Android operating free of charge to mobile phone providers or its collaboration with Sony, Logitech, Best Buy and DISH network to develop Google TV. Some of the tangible resources needed for success include financial assets, technological assets and organizational resources. Google must have cash and marketable securities in order to finance new products and investments as well as pay dividends to its stock holders. Some technological assets are its copyrights and production technology. Production technology refers to the processes used to develop new products to compete with its competitors. Organizational resources included the companys workstations and servers used in developing these products. Some of the threats that Google faces in the industry include new entrants in the market and product innovations from its competitors. Overall, Google has done a relatively good job in competing with the development of competitors products. They created the Android operating system in order to enter the mobile phone industry and they are developing new applications for cloud commuting to compete with Microsoft office software. They need not worry too much about the entrance of new businesses as they have developed a brand and corporate image that has already earned loyalty from many consumers. What recommendations would you make to Google’s top management team to sustain its competitive advantage in the search industry? How should it best capitalize on its strategic initiatives in mobile phones, cloud computing, emerging markets, and other venues? Because Googles rivals are competing with relatively the same products, I would suggest to Goggles top management to focus in conducting business in an ethical manner that conforms with the business philosophy. They have received much criticism recently because of their impressive revenues growth during the recession. They need to focus on building their brand image that consumers are appealed by. I would also suggest finding ways to offer products and services at a lower price to its consumers in order to dominate the market. With products being so comparable and easily substituted they need to compete on price. It would be in Googles best interest to focus on the markets in the United States and Canada , rather than in China. China does not want them competing there and they are spending too much time and money trying to get in when there is plenty of opportunity here. The only thing they are gaining from this is bad publicity. It would be in the best interest of the company to put much of their focus on the thing they do best and that is the search engine. Google should stay with the industries they have performed well in, such as search engine and mobile phones. Their biggest competitor, Microsoft, is the leader in innovative products and they will most likely be more successful than Google in the cloud commuting market because businesses are familiar with their products and have already created a following where Google has not. They should focus on the areas they do well in and leave the other markets to competitors. Management needs to add features to make their current products more appealing to consumer rather than looking for new markets to enter. References Thompson, A., Peteraf, M., Gamble, J., Strickland III, A. J. (2012). Crafting and executing strategy. (18 Edition ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Thompson, A. A., Peteraf, M. A., Gamble, J. E., Strickland, A. J. (2012). Cases m for crafting and executing strategy. (19 ed., Vol. 1). The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Graduation Speech -- Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

I would like to thank all of you for coming on such short notice. After all, 18 years hardly seems like enough time to prepare for graduation. In fact, as I stand up here and looking at all of my classmates, I wonder if I am ready to graduate. But I know that high school has merely been an appetizer in the seven course meal that we call life. And for all of you that know me -- family, friends and teachers -- you know that I have a great appreciation for food. Whether it's a juicy slab of prime rib at dinner or just a package of Fruitos during third period, I can never resist. It is so sad, because often times I even think in terms of food. In fact, as I sat down to write this speech the best form in which I could think of giving it was to compare our lives to a meal. In that meal, high school is merely the first course or an appetizer, a small sample that wets our appetites for the main dish. In the midst of indulging in our appetizers we sometimes forget that there is a main course yet to come. Some of us have sampled oysters and discovered that we have a hatred for seaf...

Clinical vs Counseling Psychology Essay

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the primary goals of a clinical psychologist and a counseling psychologist, explain perspectives on treatment similar and how are they different, and discuss the educational requirements for each. This paper will also discuss what type of setting are we likely to find each, identify which professional association each would be affiliated with as well as which Code of Ethics regulates each professional and explain the advantages and disadvantages to each of these professions. Primary Goals of Clinical Psychologist Assessment – This includes interviewing, observation and testing; all clinical psychologists need to be thoroughly trained in this area and should be able to choose the correct type of testing/method when conducting this with the client. They test such things as intellect, cognitive processes, and social functioning along with this, being able to interpret the test is also essential to clinical psychologist (Vallis & Howes, 1996). Diagnosis – As well as being able to conduct test, a major role also includes the ability to diagnosis using multiple models (Vallis & Howes, 1996). Intervention – Giving the client the inner strength to acclimatize themselves to change and gain a sense of power in everyday living (Vallis & Howes, 1996). Research – The ability to implement and conduct different programs both basic and applied. This is a fundamental function of clinical psychologist in both clinical and academic formats (Vallis & Howes, 1996). Consultation/Program Development – Working with peers who work with clients, interacting with peers, contributing their services for the bettering of the program, and obtaining supervision (Vallis & Howes, 1996). Clinical psychologists have a skill set which provides a much needed service to society. They use it by practicing, creating and evaluating applied and scientific skills (Vallis & Howes, 1996). Primary Goals of Counseling Psychologist Some goals include expounding on the overall mental aspect when working with families, communities, and individuals. Working with those individuals in distress and experiencing troubling times in areas such as family,  relationships, making decisions, life events and career moves just to name a few (Bedi et al, 2011). Their goal is to be well informed with how humans think, feel, their personal life, sexual relations, and even recreational activity to name a few. The counselor’s job is to expose the inadequacies and provide a remedy that will correct those issues (Watkins, 1983). Educational Requirement for Clinical Psychologist To be called a â€Å"clinical psychologist† one first would have to obtain a doctorate then become licensed in the state you want to practice in. The two types of degrees are PhD, which focuses more on research and PsyD which places emphasis on the applied facet of clinical psychology (Sternberg, 2007). Educational Requirement for Counseling Psychologist To obtain this â€Å"title† one must complete the required and accepted doctorial degree, complete a minimal of two years in what is called â€Å"supervised practice† and apply to be licensed in the state(s) you choose to practice in (Kuther & Morgan, 2009). Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages – The following advantages are from a psychology forum. (1) Being of help is self-fulfilling (2) You can set your own work schedule (3) You have the opportunity to make a lot of money (4) You can be self employed. (5) Psychologists have the opportunity to touch countless of lives (Cherry, n.d). Disadvantages –The following disadvantages are from a psychology forum. (1) Issues with insurance and billing (2) Difficulty setting up your independent business (3) Working with clients can be challenging. (4) Psychologists have rough and complex work hours. (5) You spend devoted time to recruiting new clients (Cherry, n.d). References Bedi, R. P., Haverkamp, B. E., Beatch, R., Cave, D. G., Domene, J. F., Harris, G. E., & Mikhail, A. (2011). Counselling psychology in a canadian context: Definition and description. Canadian Psychology, 52(2), 128-138. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/870506935?accountid=39364 Cherry, K. (n.d.). Advantages of Being a Psychologist. Psychology – Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts. Retrieved August 5, 2013, from http://psychology.about.com/od/careersinpsychology/tp/psychologist-advantages.htm Cherry, K. (n.d.). Disadvantages of Being a Psychologist – What’s the Worst Part About Being a Psychologist. Psychology – Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts.Retrieved August 5, 2013, from http://psychology.about.com/od/careersinpsychology/tp/psychologist-disadvantages.htm Kuther, T. L., & Morgan, R. D. (2009). Careers in psychology, opportunities in a changing world. (3rd ed. ed.). Boston: Wadsworth Pub Co. Sternberg, R. J. (2007). Career paths in psychology. Washingtion, DC: American Psychological Association. Vallis, T. M., & Howes, J. L. (1996). The field of clinical psychology: Arriving at a definition. Canadian Psychology, 37(2), 120-127. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/220807484?accountid=39364 Watkins, C. E. (1983). Counseling psychology versus clinical psychology: Further explorations on a theme or once more around the â€Å"identity† maypole with gusto . The Counseling Psychologist, 11(4), 76-92. d oi: 10.1177/0011000083114012

Horizon Foods Corporation

1) Case Summary (What’s the issue? ) Horizon Foods Corporation (hereafter â€Å"Horizon†) is a still-growing, nationwide foods organization that is widely known for its high quality products. With $300 million sales each year, the firm has been relatively successful so far, gaining good reputation and arousing much interest of the public through its brokers and local retailers. However, as the company prospers and customers demand more, Horizon foresees a coming crisis. The distribution issue, which the company has faced for a while, is now causing stock-outs, and increasing competition in the market is threatening the company’s market share.Authorities involved fail to scrutinize the issue and its cause, and they are eager to blame each other for the problems. The division of labor between two major departments – Marketing and Sales, and Production – seems to need a complete rearrangement for a more efficient process. Horizon should also analyze it s current brand positioning in the market and rework its strategies if needed. 2) Q1. What are the characteristics of the market served by the Horizon Foods Corporation? Horizon is a specialty foods processor.It has served a national market composed of food brokers who represent retail store chains. The food brokers make orders to Horizon. Generally, the orders are small. The production is done in two different plants thanks to the ingredients from some food suppliers. The plants are located in agricultural areas to reduce the cost of transportation. Moreover, Horizon produces in large quantities, and the food produced is very good in quality. The production is dispatched to several public warehouses. Then, these warehouses use contract carriers to deliver the products to the customers.Because of the small orders, the transportation cost to retail stores can be high. The market is very competitive since many of Horizon’s food competitors also offer a complete production line (See Appendix for diagram A – The Schema of the Market). 2) Q2. What problems exist at the Horizon Foods Corporation? Two issues exist at Horizon – namely, inefficient division of labor and increasing market competition. Firstly, inefficient division of labor is simply the inappropriate â€Å"split between delivery from production and service from the warehouse†.The problem might also be termed the lack of effective communication between the two major departments: Marketing and Sales (hereafter â€Å"Marketing†), and Production. Marketing is mainly responsible for promotion, merchandise, and delivery to customers whereas Production focuses on manufacture and transportation to public warehouses. The customers’ demand for the firm’s products, which are continuously measured and evaluated by the Marketing, is rather unknown to the Production, and a lack of such inter-communication is the cause of the â€Å"number of stock-outs that [retailers of the Horizon Foods Corporation] have been recently experiencing†.Secondly, increasing market competition poses a challenge to the firm. Competition is inevitable in a market, but it has now become a serious issue for Horizon as its competitors have begun â€Å"to offer complete product lines that compete directly with Horizon’s†. The firm should begin to analyze how well its brand is positioned among its competitors and figure out its new competitive priorities if need. 2) Q3. Why do you think the problems exist? There are two intrinsic problems.First problem is that the way in which Horizon holds a meeting is inefficient as different staffs join the discussion at different periods of time; communication across various departments is not effective. Second problem is that Horizon’s corporate manner does not allow every entity to openly discuss with proper manner; for example, when Roger commented about Production department supplying the market, Sally fou nd the comment as almost an insult. It is important that the corporate atmosphere is set right for discussions to take place openly and wholeheartedly.In addition to intrinsic problems, there are practical causes for the problems. Firstly, Horizon failed in managing its inventory. There are simply too many warehouses. The existence of many warehouses is the cause of the firm’s high inventory cost. Production that takes place in each and every single warehouse is rather small in quantity, and consequently, the cost to transport the products from many different warehouses is very high. It is to be noted that raw materials and ingredients are also transported over long distances.Delivery schedules vary for every warehouse, and so there are uncertainties that put Horizon at the risk of stock-outs. Secondly, the way in which Horizon has divided its management is very inefficient. As of now, marketing managers are in charge of product inventory whereas national sales manager is res ponsible for coordination of warehouses and arrangement of delivery. It is rather strange that inventory management is separated from coordination of warehouses and arrangement of delivery; in fact, all three aspects are so intimately inter-related that they should be managed by one entity within an organization.Moreover, increasing market competition, which is something that is inevitable, must be dealt with by constantly re-analyzing Horizon’s positioning and its competitive priorities in the industry. 2) Q4. What would you suggest the task force recommend in order to gain â€Å"control over this product movement process†? Before recommendations regarding control over product movement process can be made, one must notice that it has been quite a while since Horizon has been having this problem.The quote â€Å"Are we finally beginning to recognize that we have a distribution problem† shows how long it took for Horizon to finally realize, acknowledge, and gather together all the relevant authorities to discuss the issue. Corporate culture at Horizon must change in a way that would enable all entities within the organization to openly discuss any issues. Now, there are ways in which Horizon could gain more control over this product movement process. Firstly, Horizon could establish a new department – namely, Communications Management – that specifically takes care of interactions between Marketing and Production.The Communications Management would act as a bridge, allowing a free flow of information, people, and other entities (See Appendix for Diagram B – Horizon Foods Corporation’s Future State Map). The staffs in the department would develop a virtual contact system with each and every single authority relevant to personnel, purchasing, finance, marketing product line, and national sales manager; the staffs would just concentrate on effective communication within the firm.Furthermore, the new department could specialize in Materials Requirements Planning (MRP) to formulate detailed schedules for obtaining raw materials and manufacturing products. Secondly, Horizon could sign a contract with a logistics company that will exclusively work with Horizon. Currently, delivery schedules vary by carrier and are sometimes erratic because each public warehouse chooses its own distinct logistic company for delivery. Forming a contract to have a specific company to arrange all the necessary deliveries would reduce the number of stock-outs.

scart lettre Essay

scart lettre Essay scart lettre Essay Hispanic History Month Essay Pablo Neruda was born on July 12th, 1904, in Parral Chile. His real name is Neftalà ­ Ricardo Reyes Basoalto. He adopted his pen name in memory of the Czechoslovak poet Jan Neruda. At the age of thirteen, Neruda wrote in â€Å"La Maà ±ana.† This was his first publication and his first poems. The IB learner profile gives examples of different traits that every person should have and show in their daily lives. Pablo Neruda exemplifies a person who is principled and is a communicator through his various governmental works. For his communication to much of the Hispanic public through his writings and his integrity and honesty in all of his various works, Pablo Neruda was presented the Nobel peace prize in literature in 1971. Throughout his life, Pablo Neruda always expressed his ideas, even through the hard times. Between 1927 and 1935, the government put him in charge of a number of honorary consulships, which took him to Burma, Ceylon, Java, Singapore, Buenos Aires, Barcelona, and Madrid. His poetic production during that difficult period included, among other works, the collection of esoteric surrealistic poems, Residencia en la tierra, which marked his literary breakthrough. During this time he spoke all around spreading his communist ideas. In 1948 a warrant was put out for his arrest. Neruda went into hiding, but he still kept writing. From his hiding, Pablo Neruda published many works and he remained confident and creative in his writings. Neruda was also very principled in his writings. He always

Book Review over Failure is not an Option by Alan M. Blankstein Essay

Book Review over Failure is not an Option by Alan M. Blankstein - Essay Example Alan M. Blankstein has made use of different case studies and vignettes so as to ensure there is enough room for maneuvering the topic and to bring industry insights into the equation nonetheless. On his part, he has also guaranteed the use of significant resources which provide for the practical solutions in the wake of the underlying challenges and problems that may so arise from time to time. Effective school reforms are credited to be made successful only if there is leadership within the school regime and complete interaction at the level of professional learning communities. Thus the two form at the hub of effective school platforms for the basis of reforms and thus in all essence, puts forward six different perspectives or more commonly known as the guiding basis which help and facilitate their due role at creating and eventually maintaining the high performing schools. The six principles comprise of a common mission with attached vision, values, goals and objectives. Secondly, there is emphasis on the fact that there must be a definitive system for prevention as well as intervention at all times. Then there is the need for forming up collaborative teams so that the same could enable teaching and learning no matter what level the high performing schools are, within their respective domains. Another principle is to have data driven decision making within the relevant quarters as well as continuous improvement throughout the whole system. Active engagement and proper role of family as well as that of community is indeed of much significance here and the final point is in building up of sustainable capacity which could play its due part in the wake of leadership no matter how trying or difficult the circumstances are. These six principles thus form the core basis for students who can achieve just about anything which comes under the heading of success in the

Other than the September 11, 2001 attacks, and later than 2000, Term Paper

Other than the September 11, 2001 attacks, and later than 2000, identify and describe one event that has influenced (changed, modified, added, subtracted) homel - Term Paper Example Hurricane Katrina turned out to be the worst thing that could happen to our homeland and the pieces were left for Department of Homeland Security to pick up. Katrina was a category 4 hurricane and FEMA, part of the Department for Homeland Security, reacted to it according to a prepared plan. But nothing could have prepared Americans for the destruction brought on by the hurricane. No one had anticipated the ruin and damage (Borja 2008). Before the development of one Department of Homeland Security, these activities were carried out by more than 40 federal agencies. Although there had always been talk of bringing all of them under one banner; the need for one entity was truly felt after the 9/11 attacks. A March 2001 bill proposed that FEMA, Border Patrol, Customs along with several other offices be merged into one agency that will be responsible for all security related services for homeland. The Office of Homeland Security was announced 11 days after the 9/11 attacks. Its main purpose was to safeguard the country against any threats of terrorism is the future (Borja 2008). This report will discuss how the hurricane forever changed homeland security and led to the introduction of a whole new set of previously ignored challenges. Hurricane Katrina was unprecedented due to its sheer force and size. It was a huge challenge and the most destructive event in American history. It challenged our disaster response capabilities to the extreme and brought out the deficiencies in our nation’s preparedness and response facilities (Townsend 2006). According to a presidential address in 2002, the Department of Homeland Security had four goals that became the responsibility of four of its divisions accordingly. The Border Security Division is responsible for guarding the borders and preventing terrorists from entering the country. The Emergency preparedness and Response Centre has to work in tandem

My favorite brand( NIKE shoes ) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

My favorite brand( NIKE shoes ) - Research Paper Example Nike, founded in January 25th 1964 by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight as Blue Ribbon Sports, is an American multinational enterprise headquartered near Beaverton, Oregon, the designs, develops, manufactures and markets footwear, apparel, equipment, accessories and services. Valued at 10.7 billion USD, it is the most valuable brand among sports businesses and as of 2012, had more than 44,000 employees worldwide (Carbasho & Westport, 2010). It is quite easy answering people who ask what type of shoes I prefer (as it is clearly Nike), what I find particularly engaging is answering why I like Nike Shoes in a single sentence since it is a topic I could go on about for a whole day. Nike shoes are amazing in a plethora of ways and reasons. First of all, I like Nike Shoes for the wide variety that they offer. If you visit a Nike shoe store, guaranteed you will find a myriad of confusing choices to pick from. And if you’re not the disciplined type, you could easily go on an impulse buying spree. Nike shoes come in different amazing designs, colors, sizes, and so on, for all sexes. Virtually all tastes and preferences are catered for in a Nike store. It’s nearly impossible to miss something that strikes (or even something to gift to a special one on a special occasion). Secondly, Nike shoes elicit deep passion in me for the relative comfort they offer. Wearing Nike shoes is almost as comfortable as walking naturally barefoot except that your feet are now protected. So long as you pick a suitable size, you will always find Nike shoes designed for utmost comfort and protection. No pinches or sore toes at the end of that morning exercise, unlike other brands I’ve come across. In addition, Nike shoes offer durability unlike any other. Whether it is rigorous exercises or calm walks, Nike shoes will serve you for a good period of time before fading away/ aging. They are built tough to match any purpose. From my

Marketing strategies of low cost airlines in Europe Essay

Marketing strategies of low cost airlines in Europe - Essay Example In the second section, the cross tabulations have been created to relate different questions and variables. The independent variables in this case are five including short distance, direct flights, affordable transport, number of flights per day and affordable hotels. Since I have found that these are the four major attractions for the people traveling in low cost airlines therefore, they are the independent variables. The dependent variable is the sales of the tickets of each low cost airline. The following table describes the result of question that do people prefer to travel with low cost airlines. In the survey 77 people out of 120 claimed that they would prefer travelling in low cost airlines. However, out of 120, 43 people stated that they do not go for low cost airlines. It means more than 63 percent out of the total sample prefer travelling in low cost carriers, which is a significant percentage. Out of 120 individuals, 83 belonged to the age group of 19-25 and 35 belong to the age group of 25-45. On the other hand, only 2 persons fall in age group 45-65. Therefore, majority were professionals and students. Since the survey sample consist of 120 individuals belonging to different professions therefore, following table shows the description of their occupations. 38 respondents are professionals, 32 have managerial occupation and remaining respondents have other occupations (students). The following table shows why people are attracted by the low cost airlines. It is interesting to note that out of 120 respondents, 37 argued that short distance attracts them to travel in low cost airline. On the other hand, 36 argued that they are attracted to fly in these airlines because of their direct flights, 35 go for these airlines because of affordable transport. The major attractions for these people are short distance, direct flights and affordable prices. Basically the low cost airlines are

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Steps

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Steps We owe the discovery of the polymerase chain reaction to Kary B Mullis in the year 1983. He was the actual proponent of PCR. Few people are aware that in 1971, Kleppe and the Nobel laureate Gobind Khorana published studies including a description of techniques that are now known to be the basis for nucleic acid replication. However, it is unfortunate that Kleppe and Khorana were ahead of their times. Oligonucleotide synthesis wasnt as simple as it is today; genes had not been sequenced and the idea of thermostable DNA polymerases had not been described. Hence, the credit for discovering the PCR remains with Kary Mullis. The Polymerase Chain Reaction is essentially a cell-free method of DNA and RNA cloning. The DNA or RNA is isolated from the cell and replicated upto a million times. At the end, what you get is a greatly amplified fragment of DNA. The PCR is quick, reliable and sensitive and its variations have made it the basis of genetic testing. WHAT KARY B MULLIS SAYS ABOUT HOW HE DISCOVERED THE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION I was just driving and thinking about ideas and suddenly I saw it. I saw the polymerase chain reaction as clear as if it were up on a blackboard inside my head, so I pulled over and started scribbling. A chemist friend of his was asleep in the car. Mullis says that Jennifer objected groggily to the delay and the light, but I exclaimed I had discovered something fantastic. Unimpressed, she went back to sleep. Mullis kept scribbling calculations, right there in the car. He convinced the small California biotech company, Cetus, he was working for at that time, that he was up to something big. They finally listened. They sold the patent of PCR to Hoffman-LaRoche for a staggering $300 million the maximum amount of money ever paid for a patent. Mullis meanwhile received a $10,000 bonus. BASIS OF THE METHOD The purpose of PCR is to generate a huge number of copies of a segment of DNA, which could be a gene, a portion of a gene, or an intronic region. There are three major steps in a PCR, which are repeated for 30 or 40 cycles. This is done on an automated cycler, which can either heat or cool the tubes containing the reaction mixture, as required, in a very short period of time. There are three major steps in a PCR, which are repeated for 30 or 40 cycles. DenaturationDuring this process, the double stranded DNA melts and opens to form single stranded DNA. All enzymatic reactions, such as those carried over from a previous cycle, stop. This will be explained in the next paragraph. The temperature for denaturation is not fixed but it usually occurs at about 95 °C. It is important to realize that the denaturation temperature is largely dependent on G:C (guanine:cytosine) content of the DNA fragment to be analyzed. This is reasonable when one considers that the G:C bond is a triple hydrogen bond and the AT bond is a double bond. Logic dictates that a triple bond should be 1.5 times harder to break than a double bond. Therefore, when the segment of DNA to be analyzed has a very high G:C content, the denaturation temperature can reach even upto 99 °C. AnnealingThis requires temperatures lower than those required for denaturation. In this process, the primers anneal to that very specific segment of DNA that is to be amplified. The primers are jiggling around, caused by the Brownian motion. Ionic bonds are constantly formed and broken between the single stranded primer and the single stranded template. The more stable bonds last a little bit longer (primers that fit exactly) and on that little piece of what is now double stranded DNA (template and primer); the polymerase can attach and starts copying the template. Once there are a few bases built in, the ionic bond is so strong between the template and the primer, that it does not break anymore. ExtensionThis is done at 72 °C. This is the ideal temperature for working with polymerase. The primers, which are complementary to the template, already have a strong ionic attraction to the template. This force is stronger than the forces breaking these attractions i.e. the high temperature. Primers that are on positions with no exact match (non complementary) get loose again (because of the higher temperature) and dont give an extension of the fragment. The nucleotide bases are added from the 5 end to the 3 end. The phosphate group of the dNTPs is coupled with the hydroxyl group of the extending DNA strand. The extension time depends on two factors; the type of polymerase used and the length of the DNA fragment to be amplified. Usually, Taq polymerase adds dNTPs at the rate of about 1000 bases per minute. It is important to realize that each component of the PCR including the input DNA, the oligonucleotide primers, the thermostable polymerase, the buffer and the cycling parameters has a profound impact on the sensitivity, specificity and fidelity of the reaction. The three steps of the first cycle are shown, that is, denaturation, annealing and extension. At the end of the first cycle, two strands have been synthesized. At the end of the second cycle, four strands have been synthesized (the three steps of the cycle have not been shown). At the end of the third cycle, eight strands have been synthesized. The number of strands increases exponentially with each cycle. Nuggets The Polymerase Chain Reaction is essentially a cell-free method of cloning DNA and RNA. There are three steps involved in every cycle; these are denaturation, annealing and extension. At the end of each cycle, the DNA doubles. Therefore, theoretically, if there are n cycles in a reaction, the number of DNA fragments at the end of the reaction will be 2n. COMPONENTS OF THE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION The components that are essential for a successful PCR are elaborated here. TEMPLATE DNA This is that portion of the DNA/gene that is to be amplified. Usually the concentration is  100 ng genomic DNA per PCR reaction. However, this can vary depending on the target gene concentration and the source of DNA. The PCR reaction is inherently sensitive. It is not necessary for the template DNA to be abundant or highly purified. Higher amounts of template DNA can increase the yield of nonspecific PCR products, but if the fidelity of the reaction is crucial, one should limit both template DNA quantities as well as the number of PCR cycles. DNA in solution may contain a large number of contaminants. These contaminants may inhibit the PCR. Some of these reagents are phenol, EDTA, and proteinase K, which can inhibit Taq DNA polymerase. However, isopropanol precipitation of DNA and washing of DNA pellets with 70% ethanol is usually effective in removing traces of contaminants from the DNA sample. Effects of Fixation This is of particular interest to the pathologist since he has to deal with formalin fixed tissue. DNA extracted from fresh tissue or cell suspensions forms an optimal template for PCR. The tissue is best stored at -70 °C at which the nucleic acids can be stored indefinitely. A temperature of -20 °C is sufficient to preserve the DNA for several months and at 4 °C, the DNA can be stored for several weeks. At room temperature, the DNA has been successfully stored for hours to days; however, mitochondrial DNA is very sensitive to temperature and may degrade in thawed tissues. DNA extracted from fixed tissue has been used successfully for PCR. The type of fixative and the duration of fixation are of critical importance. Non crosslinking fixatives like ethanol provide the best DNA. Formaldehyde is variable in its DNA yield. Carnoys, Zenkers and Bouins are poor fixatives as far as DNA preservation is concerned. Not surprisingly, formaldehyde is the fixative which has been evaluated the most, because it is more commonly used worldwide. The studies have demonstrated that a successful PCR depends on the protocol to extract the DNA and the length of fixation. Formaldehyde reacts with DNA and proteins to form labile hydroxymethyl intermediates which give rise to a mixture of end products which include DNA-DNA and DNA-protein adducts. Purification of DNA from formalin fixed tissue, therefore, includes heating to reverse the hydroxymethyl additions and treatment with a proteinase to hydrolyze the covalently linked proteins. However, there is no way to reverse the DNA-DNA links and these links inhibit the DNA polymerases. This accounts for the low PCR yield which is seen with formalin fixed tissue. Usually, the PCR reaction with formalin fixed DNA as a template yields products which are not more than 600 bp in size. Nuggets Template DNA is required in a concentration of 100ng for each PCR reaction. Contaminants in DNA may inhibit the reaction. Fixation of tissues provides DNA which is not as good as DNA obtained from fresh/ frozen tissues. Different fixatives give different DNA yields. Alcohol is the best fixative and Carnoys, Zenkers and Bouins are poor fixatives as far as DNA preservation is concerned. Formalin is intermediate in DNA yield. Purification of DNA from formalin fixed tissue involves heating to reverse the attachment of hydroxymethyl intermediates and treatment with a proteinase to hydrolyze the covalently linked proteins. The DNA obtained after fixation can be used for reactions in which the PCR product is not more than 600 bp. PCR BUFFER The purpose of using buffers in PCR is to provide optimum pH and potassium ion concentration for the DNA polymerase enzyme (usually obtained from bacteria Thermus aquaticus) to function. Most buffers are available in a 10X concentration and require dilution before use. Although most protocols recommend the final buffer concentration of 1X, a concentration of 1.5X might result in increased PCR product yield. The PCR buffer contains many components. Some important ones are discussed here: Divalent and monovalent cations These are required by all thermostable DNA polymerases. Mg2+ is the divalent cation that is usually present in most of the PCR buffers. Some polymerases also work with buffers containing Mn2+. Calcium containing buffers are ineffective and therefore, rarely used. Buffers can be divided into first and second generation buffers on the basis of their ionic component. The second generation buffers, as opposed to first generation buffers, also contain (NH4)2SO4 and permit consistent PCR product yield and specificity over a wide range of magnesium concentration (1.0 to 4.0 mM MgCl2). The overall specificity and yield of PCR products is better with second generation buffers, as compared with first generation PCR buffers. Buffers also contain KCl. Salts like KCl and NaCl may help to facilitate primer annealing, but concentration of 50 mM will inhibit Taq polymerase activity. Interactions between K+ and NH4+ allow specific primer hybridization over a broad ran ge of temperatures. Magnesium is one of the most important components of the buffer. Mg2+ ions form a soluble complex with dNTPs which is essential for dNTP incorporation; they also stimulate polymerase activity and influence the annealing efficiency of primer to template DNA. The concentration of MgCl2 can have a dramatic effect on the specificity and yield of PCR products. Optimal concentration of MgCl2 is between 1.0 to 1.5 mM for most reactions. Low MgCl2 concentration helps to eliminate non-specific priming and formation of background PCR products. This is desirable when fidelity of DNA synthesis is critical. At the same time, however, too few Mg2+ ions can result in low yield of PCR products. High MgCl2 concentration helps to stabilize interaction of the primers with their intended template, but can also result in nonspecific binding and formation of non specific PCR products. It is important to be aware that many PCR buffers (often sold in 10X stocks) already contain some amo unt of MgCl2. Therefore, the addition of further amounts must be carefully monitored. In the best possible scenario, the PCR would work well with the amount of Mg2+ already present in the buffer solution. However, if this does not occur, it is necessary to standardize the amount of Mg2+ in the reaction mix. This can be difficult because the dNTPs and the oligonucleotide primers bind to Mg2+. Therefore, the molar concentration of Mg2+ must exceed the molar concentration of the phosphate groups contributed by dNTPs and the primers. As a rule of thumb, the magnesium concentration in the reaction mixture is generally 0.5 to 2.5 mM greater than the concentration of dNTPs. The optimal concentration of Mg2+ should, therefore, be standardized for each reaction. Tris-Cl The concentration of tris-Cl is adjusted so that the pH of the reaction mixture is maintained between 8.3 and 8.8 at room temperature. In standard PCR reactions, it is usually present in a concentration of 10mM. When incubated at 72 °C which is the temperature for extension, the pH of the reaction mixture falls by more than a full unit, producing a buffer whose pH is 7.2. Other components Some buffers also contain components like BSA (Bovine serum albumin) and DMSO (dimethyl sulphoxide). BSA reduces the amount of template sticking to the side of the tube, making it available for amplification and reducing the risk of primer dimer. Primer dimers are products obtained when the primers anneal to each other instead to to the template DNA. DMSO has been shown to facilitate DNA strand separation (in GC rich difficult secondary structures) because it disrupts base pairing and has been shown to improve PCR efficiency. In effect, it is wise not to tamper with the buffer provided with the Taq polymerase. The buffer is usually standardized for the vial of Taq and there is no need to add additional MgCl2 or stabilizers like DMSO and BSA. However, some Taq buffers come with the buffer in one vial and MgCl2 in a separate vial. Under such circumstances, it is advisable to start with 1 µL of MgCl2 and increase its concentration in aliquots of 0.5  µL, if the initial reaction fails. Nuggets The PCR buffer contains divalent and monovalent cations, Tris Cl and other components. The PCR buffer is used to give the correct pH and potassium concentration for the DNA polymerase to function. The most common divalent ion used is magnesium in the form of MgCl2. MgCl2 concentration is vital for PCR. Tris Cl is used to maintain the pH between 8.3 and 8.8 at room temperature. Salts like NaCl and KCl may facilitate primer annealing Other components like BSA and DMSO help to increase the sensitivity and specificity of the reaction. OLIGONUCLEOTIDE PRIMERS What are Oligonucleotide Primers? PCR primers are short fragments of single stranded DNA (17-30 nucleotides in length) that are complementary to DNA sequences that flank the target region of interest. The purpose of PCR primers is to provide a free 3-OH group to which the DNA polymerase can add dNTPs. There are two primers used in the reaction. The forward primer anneals to the DNA minus strand and directs synthesis in a 5 to 3 direction. The sequence of primers is always represented in a 5 to a 3 direction. The reverse primer anneals to the other strand of the DNA. How to design a primer? The predominant goal kept in mind while designing a primer is specificity. Each member of the primer must anneal in a stable fashion to its target sequence in the template DNA. The longer the primer, the higher is its specificity. Unfortunately, the longer the primer, the less likely it is to anneal to a particular sequence in the template DNA. Conversely, if the primer length is small, it is likely to anneal, but its specificity will be poor. A compromise is reached by designing primers between 20 and 25 nucleotides long. Inclusion of less than 17 nucleotides often leads to non specific annealing, while presence of more than 25 nucleotides may not allow annealing to occur at all. Remember that the DNA sequence in the human genome appears to be a random sequence of nucleotides. When designing primers, it is important to calculate the probability that a sequence exactly complementary to a string of nucleotides in the human genome will occur by chance. Several formulae are designed to calculate such probabilities. However, mathematical expressions are not necessarily correct and in this case, the predictions maybe wildly wrong. The distribution of codons is non random with repetitive DNA sequences and gene families. It is advisable to use primers longer than the statistically indicated minimum. It is also advisable to scan DNA databases to check if the proposed sequence occurs only in the desired gene. For a practicing pathologist, it is best not to attempt designing of primers. What a pathologist requires is the primer sequence for an established test. If, for example, a pathologist requires primer sequence for the diagnosis of sickle cell anemia, all he has to do is search the web for papers related to molecular testing of sickle cell anemia. The primer sequences will be provided in the paper. Custom made primers can be commercially synthesized. Several biotechnology companies provide this facility. Before the primers are ordered, it is essential to check that the sequence is correct and that there are no missing nucleotides in the sequence. That is where, BLAST is invaluable. Before the intricacies of the BLAST search are elaborated upon, it is necessary to mention that designing a primer does not depend only on the sequence of nucleotides. Other factors like the GC content and melting point are also important considerations. They will be dealt with later in the chapter. BLAST and its uses BLAST is an acronym for Basic Local Alignment Search Tool. It is an algorithm comparing information about primary biological sequences with a library or database of sequences. A BLAST can be performed for different organisms, but in this book, we will concern ourselves with nucleotide BLAST in humans only. BLAST searches the database for sequences similar to the sequence of interest (the query sequence) by using a 2-step approach. The basic concept is that the higher the number of similar segments between two sequences, and the longer the length of similar segments, the less divergent the sequences are, and therefore, likely to be more genetically related (homologous). Before perfoming a BLAST search the oligonucleotide sequence is first identified. The sequence is fed into the programme. BLAST first searches for short regions of a given length called words (W). It then searches for substrings which are compared to the query sequence. The program then aligns with sequences in the database (target sequences), using a substitution matrix. For every pair of sequences (query and target) that have a word or words in common, BLAST extends the search in both directions to find alignments that score greater (are more similar) than a certain score threshold (S). These alignments are called high scoring pairs or HSPs; the maximal scoring HSPs are called maximum segment pairs (MSPs). The BLAST search as outlined in fig 7.2 shows the results of the search. If we scroll down further, we can see the sequences producing significant alignments. Note that in this BLAST search, there are 49 BLAST hits in the query sequence. In the list shown in figure 7.2, there is a list of hits starting with the best (most similar). To the right of the screen is the E-value. This is the expected number of chance alignments; the lower the E value, the more significant the score. First in the list is the sequence finding itself, which obviously has the best score. To the left is the accession number. This refers to a unique code that identifies a sequence in a database. It is important to know that there is no set cut-off that determines whether a match is significant or similar enough. This must be determined according to the goals of the project. The sequences provided in the figure 7.2 show a significant alignment with Pseudomonas japonica. It shows a high score (bits) and a low E-value. Note that the lower the E value, the greater the likelihood that the sequence is a good match. BLAST output can be delivered in a variety of formats. These formats include HTML, plain text and XML formatting. For the NCBIs web-page, the default format for output is HTML. When performing a BLAST on NCBI (National Centre for Biotechnology Information), the results are displayed in a graphical format showing the following: The hits found A tabular form showing sequence identifiers for the hits with scoring related data Alignments for the sequence of interest and the hits received with corresponding BLAST scores for these. The easiest to read and most informative of these is probably the table. The main idea of BLAST is that there are often high-scoring segment pairs (HSP) in a statistically significant alignment. BLAST searches for these high scoring sequence alignments between the query sequence and the sequences in the database. The speed and relatively good accuracy of BLAST are among the key technical innovations of the BLAST programs. Sequence of events to be followed when performing a BLAST search.: Go to PUBMED (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/) Scroll down to reach a heading called POPULAR Under POPULAR click on BLAST Click on nucleotide blast Under the heading, enter accession number(s), gi(s), or FASTA sequence(s), type or paste the sequence that you want matched. Click BLAST Wait for the results. Analyse the nucleotide sequence as it appears. Calculation of Melting Temperature The melting temperature or Tm is a measure of stability of the duplex formed by the primer and the complementary target DNA sequence and is an important consideration in primer design. Tm corresponds to the midpoint in transition of DNA from the double stranded to its single stranded form. A higher Tm permits an increased annealing temperature that makes sure that the annealing between the target DNA and the primer is specific. The Tm is dependent on the length of the oligonucleotides and the G+C content of the primer. The formula for calculation of Tm is given in table 7.1. Table 7.1: Formula for calculation of the melting temperature. Length of Primer Tm ( °C) Less than 20 nucleotides long 2(effective length*) 20 to 35 nucleotides long 22 + 1.46(effective length) *Effective length = 2(number of G+C) + number of (A + T) Primers are usually designed to avoid matching repetitive DNA sequences. This includes repeats of a single nucleotide.. The two primers in a PCR reaction are not homologous to each other and their complementarity can lead to formation of spurious amplification artifacts called primer dimers. The 3 end of a primer is most critical for initiating polymerization. The rules for selecting primers in addition to those already mentioned are as follows: The C and G nucleotides should be distributed uniformly throughout the primer and comprise approximately 40% of the bases. More than three G or C nucleotides at the 3-end of the primer should be avoided, as nonspecific priming may occur. The primer should be neither self-complementary nor complementary to any other primer in the reaction mixture, in order to avoid formation of primer-dimer or hairpin-like structure. All possible sites of complementarity between the primer and the template DNA should be noted. The melting temperature of flanking primers should not differ by more than 5 °C. Therefore, the G+C content and length must be chosen accordingly (a higher G+C content means a higher melting temperature). The PCR annealing temperature (TA) should be approximately 5 °C lower than the primer melting temperature. G+C content in each primer should not be more than 60% to avoid formation of internal secondary structures and long stretches of any one base. Primer extension will occur during the annealing step. Primers are always present in an excess concentration in conventional (symmetric) PCR amplification and, typically, are within the range of 0.1M to 1M. It is generally advisable to use purified oligomers of the highest chemical integrity. Primer Dimers A Primer Dimer (PD) consists of primer molecules that have attached or hybridized to each other because of strings of complementary bases in the primers. As a result, the DNA polymerase amplifies the PD, leading to competition for PCR reagents, thus potentially inhibiting amplification of the DNA sequence targeted for PCR amplification. In the first step of primer dimer formation, two primers anneal at their respective 3 ends. The DNA polymerase will bind and extend the primers. In the third step, a single strand of the product of step II is used as a template to which fresh primers anneal leading to synthesis of more PD product. Primer dimers may be visible after gel electrophoresis of the PCR product. In ethidium bromide stained gels, they are typically seen as 30-50 base-pair (bp) bands or smears of moderate to high intensity. They can be easily distinguished from the band of the target sequence, which is typically longer than 50 bp. One approach to prevent PD formation consists of physical-chemical optimization of the PCR system, i.e., changing the concentration of primers, MgCl2, nucleotides, ionic strength and temperature of the reaction. Reducing PD formation may also result in reduced PCR efficiency. To overcome this limitation, other methods aim to reduce the formation of PDs only. These include primer design, and use of different PCR enzyme systems or reagents. Nuggets Oligonucleotide primers are short fragments of single stranded DNA (17-30 nucleotides in length) that are complementary to DNA sequences that flank the target region of interest. They dictate which region of DNA in the PCR will be amplified. Primer sequences can be obtained by reviewing previously published literature. A confirmation of the sequence can be done by using BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool). The melting temperature is the midpoint in the observed transition from a double stranded to a single stranded form. A higher annealing temperature ensures that the annealing between the target DNA and the primer is specific. A primer dimer consists of primer molecules that have attached or hybridized to each other because of strings of complementary bases in the primers. Taq polymerase amplifies the primer dimer leading to competition for the PCR products. Several methods are used to reduce primer dimer formation including changing the concentrations of primers, MgCl2, nucleotides, ionic strength and temperature of the reaction. TAQ DNA POLYMERASE The initial PCR reaction used the Klenow fragment of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase. However, this was unstable at high temperatures and it was necessary to add a fresh aliquot of enzyme after every denaturation step. The annealing and extension temperatures had to be kept low and as a result, there was formation of non specific products in abundance. The discovery of the thermostable Taq DNA polymerases ensured that the PCR did not remain a laboratory curiosity. The extension and annealing temperatures could now be kept high and the formation of non specific products was greatly reduced. Taq became famous for its use in the polymerase chain reaction and was called the Molecule of the Year by the journal Science. Why Taq? Taq is the enzyme of choice in PCR because of the following reasons: Taq works best at 75 °C80 °C, allowing the elongation step to occur at temperatures which make non-Watson-Crick base pairing a rare event. It can add upto 1,000 nucleoside triphosphates to a growing DNA strand. Taq has a half-life of 40 minutes at 95 °C and 9 minutes at 97.5 °C, and can replicate a 1000 base pair strand of DNA in less than 10 seconds at 72 °C. Because of all these properties, Taq is the enzyme of choice in the PCR. How does Taq polymerase act? The first requirement is a primer. The primer is annealed to the template strand having free hydroxyl group at its 3 end. During the extension phase, the Taq synthesizes a new DNA strand complementary to the template by adding dNTPs in a 5 to 3 direction condensing the 5 phosphate group of the dNTPs with the 3 hydroxyl group of the end of the extending DNA strand. Since Taq works best between 70 °C- 80 °C, a temperature of 72 °C is usually chosen as the optimum annealing temperature. Where does Taq come from? In Thermus aquaticus, Taq polymerase is expressed at very low levels and commercial production is not economically viable. However, the enzyme can now be produced from different versions of the engineered Taq gene so as to obtain high levels of expression in E coli. What other polymerases are available for use in PCR? Taq is not the only polymerase; other polymerases are available but Taq is the one that is generally used in a PCR. A few other polymerases with their uses are as follows: PFU DNA polymerase -Found in Pyrococcus furiosus, it functions in vivo to replicate the organisms DNA. The main difference between Pfu and alternative enzymes is the Pfus superior thermostability and proofreading properties compared to other thermostable polymerases. Unlike Taq DNA polymerase, Pfu DNA polymerase possesses 3 to 5 exonuclease proofreading activity, meaning that it works its way along the DNA from the 3 end to the 5 end and corrects nucleotide-misincorporation errors. This means that Pfu DNA polymerase-generated PCR fragments will have fewer errors than Taq-generated PCR inserts. As a result, Pfu is more commonly used for molecular cloning of PCR fragments than the historically popular Taq. However, Pfu is slower and typically requires 1-2 minutes to amplify 1kb of DNA at 72 ° C. Pfu can also be used in conjunction with Taq polymerase to obtain the fidelity of Pfu with the speed of Taq polymerase activity. TFL DNA polymerase Obtained from Thermus flavus, it is useful for the amplification of large segments of DNA. WHAT IS FIDELITY? All DNA polymerases have an intrinsic error rate that is highly dependant on the buffer composition, pH of the buffer, dNTP concentration and the sequence of the template itself. The types of errors that are introduced are frameshift mutations, single base pair substitutions, and spontaneous rearrangements. Therefore, the PCR reaction generates a product that is very similar, but in many cases, not identical to the original sequence. The quantity of dissimilar product obtained is obviously related to the cycle in which the mismatch took place. Under normal circumstances, this does not make any difference; however, these errors may become significant during sequencing when the role of fidelity comes into play. Fidelity is the ability of the polymerases to avoid the incorporation of wrong nucleotides during the reaction. Under normal circumstances, it really does not make a difference if a wrong nucleotide is incorporated because the size of the PCR product remains the same and that is what we have to look for. However, there are some polymerases like Pfu which have a high fidelity. In addition to reading from the 5 to the 3 direction, they can also read from the 3 to the 5 direction and correct the wrong nucleotides wh

The Wisdom of Franz Kafka’s On Parables :: Kafka On Parables Essays

The Wisdom of Franz Kafka’s On Parables Is it even possible to gain a better life through knowledge and wisdom? Should we listen to the words of the wise? Franz Kafka tries to answer these questions in his short essay ``On Parables,'' with a resounding ``No!'' In this Kafkan world, one filled with the daily struggles and cares of life, the only thing we can know is the incomprehensibility of it all. He states that all wisdom is expressed in parables then destroys any hope we may have by trouncing the authenticity of parables. But then he does something strange, vividly illustrating his point by using the very method he hoped to discredit. The first paragraph of ``On Parables'' provides Kafka's main point: ``the words of the wise are always merely parables and of no use in daily life.'' How does he arrive to this conclusion? He first first asserts that the words of the wise are always parables then explains why all parables are useless. Finally, he concludes that the words of the wise, since they are all parables, are all useless for daily life. Kafka first assumes that ``the words of the wise are always merely parables,'' and expects the reader to follow this assumption rigidly throughout the work. Notice that there is no wiggle room for the wise; their words are always parables. So don't complain, don't object. It is so, at least within the scope of his essay. Kafka does however state why the sages use parables. Since sages themselves are incapable of communicating wisdom, they speak in imperfect parables in a futile attempt to communicate that wisdom. Kafka further hints that this may be because even the sage doesn't understand such wisdom. The words of the sage, ``Go over,'' indicate that the sage is not currently where he wants the people to go, but may himself yet be stuck in this world of daily cares, struggles, and hardships. If he were where he wants us to be, he would have used the words ``come over'' instead. ``Over where?'' you may ask. Kafka answers this question by posing what I will refer to as three lands of life related to parables. The first, the most real one, refers to the state of a person's life before encountering a parable. The second, a potential land, is the parable itself and the resulting actions and consequences a person derives from the parable.